沙之天地

Muslim Contributions

That Changed the World

穆斯林的貢獻

他們如何改變世界

(Astrolabe)

Astrolabes, originally thought to be invented in the Hellenistic world in 150 BC, were further developed by Muslim astronomers, by introducing angular scales and adding circles indicating azimuths on the horizon. It was widely used throughout the Muslim world, chiefly as an aid to navigation and as a way of finding the Qiblah (Muslim direction of prayer facing Makkah). The first person credited with building the astrolabe in the Muslim world is reportedly the 8th century mathematician Muhammad Al-Fazari. Astrolabes were used to find the times of sunrise and the rising of fixed stars, to help schedule morning prayers. In the 10th century, Abd Al-Rahman Al-Sufi first described over 1000 different uses for an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as astronomy, astrology, horoscopes,navigation, surveying, timekeeping, Muslim prayer, Qibla, etc. Astrolabes were introduced to Europe in the early 1100s and had become the most popular astronomical instrument by 1650.

(星盤)

星盤，原本被認為是由西元前150年的希臘世界所發明，被穆斯林天文學家更進一步發展，藉由採用尺度和加上顯示在水平面上的方位角的圓圈。它在整個穆斯林世界被廣泛地使用，主要作為航海的輔助，以及作為找到Qiblah(祈禱者面向麥加的穆斯林方向)。第一位在穆斯林世界建立星盤的人據第八世紀的記載被認為是數學家Muhammad Al-Fazari。星盤被使用於找到朝陽以及眾恆星升起的時間，為了幫助晨禱者們制定行程。在第十世紀，Abd Al-Rahman Al-Sufi第一個描述了超過一千種星盤的不同運用，在不同領域像天文學、占星術、天宮圖、航海、測量學、報時、穆斯林的禱告者、Qibla等。星盤早在1100年間被引介至歐洲，並在1650年成為最受歡迎的天文學儀器。

(Trigonometry)

Trigonometry remained largely a theoretical science amongst the Greeks. It was developed to a level of modern perfection by Muslim scholars, although the weight of the credit must be given to Al-Battani. The words describing the basic functions of this science: sine, cosine and tangent — are all derived from Arabic terms. Thus, original contributions by the Greeks in trigonometry were minimal.

(三角函數)

三角函數保留大量的希臘理論科學。它被穆斯林學者發展至如現代般的完美程度，雖然主要該歸功於Al-Battani。在此科學中被用來描述基本功能的詞彙：正弦、餘弦和正切—全來自阿拉伯術語。因此，希臘原本對三角函數的貢獻是極少的。

(Algebra)

Muslim mathematicians, the inventors of algebra, introduced the concept of using letters for unknown variables in equations as early as the 9th century A.D. Through this system, they solved a variety of complex equations, including quadratic and cubic equations, and equations with letters such as the now familiar x and y's. They used symbols to develop and perfect the binomial theorem. The word "algorithm" comes from mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, known as the father of Algebra. 'Algebra' is from the Arabic word for equation (Al-Jabr).

(代數)

穆斯林的數學家，代數的發明者，早在西元第九世紀便引介使用字母予在方程式中的未知數的概念。透過這個系統，他們解決了各式各樣的複雜方程式，包括二次和三次方程式，以及有字母如現在熟悉的X和Y的方程式。他們使用象徵來發展和完備二項式定理。「代數」這個詞來自數學家Al-Khwarizmi，以代數之父聞名。「代數」來自阿拉伯詞彙予方程式(Al-Jabr)。

(Astronomy)

Muslim astronomers made numerous improvements upon Ptolemy's findings as early as the 9th century. They were the first astronomers to dispute his archaic ideas. In their critic of the Greeks, they synthesised proof that the sun is the centre of the solar system and that the orbits of the Earth and other planets might be elliptical. They produced hundreds of highly accurate astronomical tablets and star charts. Many of their calculations are so precise that they are regarded as contemporary. The Alphonsine Tablets are little more than copies of works on astronomy transmitted to Europe via Islamic Spain; specifically, the Toledo Tablets.

(天文學)

穆斯林的天文學者早在第九世紀就在托勒密的發現上做出大量的改進。他們是討論他的古老想法的第一批天文學家。在他們對於這個希臘人的評論中，他們綜合太陽是太陽系的中心和地球和其他行星的軌道可能是橢圓的的證據。他們製造出數百個高度精密的天文表和星圖。他們許多計算是如此精確，以致於他們被認為如同當代。阿方索星表僅僅是透過伊斯蘭西班牙傳入歐洲的這些天文學成就的拷貝；特別是，托勒多星表。

(Optometry)

Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain invented eyeglasses during the 9th century, and were manufactured and sold throughout Spain for over two centuries. Any mention of eyeglasses by Roger Bacon was simply a regurgitation of the work of Al-Haytham (d. 1039), whose research Bacon frequently referred to.

(視光學)

伊斯蘭西班牙的Ibn Firnas在第九世紀發明了眼鏡，並製造並銷售到整個西班牙，整整兩個世紀。羅傑培根提到的任何關於眼鏡的描述只是Al-Haytham (d. 1039)工作的反芻，培根經常提及Al-Haytham的研究。

(Matter)

The concept of the finite nature of matter was first introduced by Muslim scholar Al-Biruni. He discovered that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always remains the same. Thus, for instance, if water is heated to steam; if salt is dissolved in water etc., the total mass remains unchanged. The principles of this discovery were elaborated centuries before by Islamic Persia's great scholar, Al-Biruni (d. 1050). Lavoisier was a disciple of the Muslim chemists and physicists and referred to their books frequently. Antione Lavoisier later introduced these principles to Europe during the 18th century.

(質量)

有限自然的質量的概念被伊斯蘭學者Al-Biruni第一次引介。他發現，雖然質量可能改變它的形式或形狀，它的質量卻永遠保持一樣。因此，舉例來說，如果水被熱蒸發；如果鹽融解在水中等，總質量維持不變。這個發現的原則在數個世紀前被伊斯蘭的波斯的偉大學者，Al-Biruni (d. 1050)闡述。拉瓦錫是一個穆斯林化學家和物理學家的追隨者，並經常提到他們的著作。安東萬拉瓦錫之後在18世紀間介紹了這些原則到歐洲。

(Gunpowder)

The Chinese developed saltpetre ("Chinese snow") for use in fireworks and knew of no tactical military use for gunpowder, nor did they invent its formula. Research by Reinuad and Fave had clearly shown that gunpowder was formulated initially by Muslim chemists. Furthermore, these historians claim that the Muslims developed the first fire-arms. Notably, Muslim armies used grenades and other weapons in their defence of Algericus against the Franks during the 14th century. Jean Mathes indicates that the Muslim rulers had stock-piles of grenades, rifles, crude cannons, incendiary devices, sulfur bombs and pistols decades before such devices were used in Europe. The first mention of a cannon was in an Arabic text around 1300 A.D.; Roger Bacon learned of the formula for gunpowder from Latin translation of Arabic books.

(火藥)

中國人發展出硝石(「中國雪」)在煙火的使用上，已知不用於軍事戰術的火藥使用，也沒有發明它的方程式。藉由Reinued和Fave的研究，早已經清楚呈現火藥一開始的方程式化是藉由穆斯林化學家。再者，這些歷史學家聲稱穆斯林發展了第一個火器。顯然，穆斯林軍隊在14世紀時已使用手榴彈和其他武器防衛阿爾及利亞以對抗法蘭克人。Jean Mathes指出，穆斯林領導者擁有大量儲存的手榴彈、步槍、簡單的加農砲、放火裝置、硫磺炸彈和手槍，比歐洲早了幾十年。最早提到加農砲是在約西元1300年的阿拉伯文本中；羅傑培根從翻譯自阿拉伯書籍的拉丁文譯本學習火藥的方程式。

(Geography)

Muslim geographers produced untold volumes of books on the geography of Africa, Asia, India, China and the Indies during the 8th through to the 15th century. These writings included the world's first geographical encyclopedias, almanacs and road maps. Ibn Battutah's 14th century masterpieces provide a detailed view of the geography of the ancient world. The Muslim geographers far exceeded the output by Europeans regarding the geography of these regions well into the 18th century.

(地理)

穆斯林地理學家在八世紀至15世紀期間製造出不計其數的關於非洲、亞洲、印度、中國以及印度群島的地理書籍。這些作品包括世界最早的地理百科全書、年鑑和路線圖。Ibn Battutah的14世紀傑作提供一個古代世界的地理學的清晰視圖。18世紀時，穆斯林地理學者關於這些地區的地理學遠超出歐洲人的產出。

(Pendulum)

The pendulum was discovered by Ibn Yunus Al-Masri during the 10th century, who was the first to study and document its oscillatory motion. Its value for use in clocks was introduced by Muslim physicists during the 15th century.

(鐘擺)

鐘擺在十世紀期間被Ibn Yunus Al-Masri發現，他是第一個去研讀和記錄它的振盪運動的人。它用於時鐘的價值被15世紀期間的穆斯林物理學家所引介。

(Navigation)

Muslim geographers and navigators learned of the magnetic needle, possibly from the Chinese, and were the first to use magnetic needles in navigation. They invented the compass and passed the knowledge of its use in navigation to the West. European navigators relied on Muslim pilots and their instruments when exploring unknown territories. Gustav Le Bon claims that magnetic needle and compass were entirely invented by the Muslims and that the Chinese had little to do with it. Neckham also states that the Chinese probably learned of it from Muslim traders. It is noteworthy that the Chinese improved their navigational expertise after they began interacting with the Muslims during the 8th century.

(航海)

穆斯林地理學家和航海家學到磁針，可能來自中國人，他們是第一個使用磁針於航海的人。他們發明羅盤，並傳授如何在航行中使用它的知識給西方。當探索未知領域時，歐洲航海家們仰賴穆斯林領航員和他們的儀器。Gustav Le Bon聲稱磁針和羅盤全部由穆斯林發明，中國人和其關係不大。Neckham也陳述，中國人可能從穆斯林商人那學到它。值得一提的是，在八世紀期間開始和穆斯林交流後，中國人改善了他們的航海技術。

(Glass Mirrors)

Glass mirrors were in use in Islamic Spain as early as the 11th century. The Venetian learned of the art of fine glass production from Syrian artisans during the 9th and 10th centuries.

(玻璃鏡)

玻璃鏡早在11世紀時為伊斯蘭西班牙所使用。九世紀和十世紀期間，威尼斯人從敘利亞工匠那裡學到精製玻璃製造的藝術。

(Clocks)

A variety of mechanical clocks were produced by Spanish Muslim engineers, both large and small, and this knowledge was transmitted to Europe through Latin translations of Islamic books on mechanics. These clocks were weight driven; designs and illustrations of epicycle and segmental gears were provided. One such clock included a mercury escapement. The latter type was directly copied by Europeans during the 15th century. In addition, during the 9th century, Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain, according to Will Durant, invented a watch-like device which kept accurate time. The Muslims also constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories.

(時鐘)

西班牙穆斯林工程師製造出各式各樣的機械鐘，大的和小的都有，這個知識透過伊斯蘭機械學著作的拉丁文譯本被傳至歐洲。這些時鐘是重量驅動；周轉圓和分段齒輪的設計和插圖也被提供。一個像這樣的時鐘包括一個水銀擒縱器。之後的種類被15世紀期間的歐洲人直接複製。此外，在九世紀期間，伊斯蘭西班牙的Ibn Firnas，根據Will Durant的記載，發明了一個手錶樣式的裝置，它維持精確的時間。穆斯林也建造各式高度精密的天文鐘予觀測者使用。

(Cheques)

The modern cheque comes from the Arabic 'saqq', a written vow to pay for goods when they were delivered, to avoid money having to be transported across dangerous terrain. In the 9th century, a Muslim businessman could cash a cheque in China drawn on his bank in Baghdad.

(支票)

現代支票來自阿拉伯的「saqq」，是一種當貨物運送時被寫下來以支付貨物的誓詞，為了避免金錢必須經由危險的區域被運送。在九世紀，一個穆斯林商人可以在中國兌現支票，由他在巴格達的銀行付款。

文本來源：伊斯坦堡藍色清真寺